Elementary Particles :

One of the primary goals in modern physics is to answer the question "What is the Universe made of?" Often that question reduces to "What is matter and what holds it together?" This continues the line of investigation started by Democritus, Dalton and Rutherford.

Modern physics speaks of fundamental building blocks of Nature, where fundamental takes on a reductionist meaning of simple and structureless. Many of the particles we have discussed so far appear simple in their properties. All electrons have the exact same characteristics (mass, charge, etc.), so we call an electron fundamental because they are all non-unique.

Thus, our current understanding of the structure of the atom is shown below, the atom contains a nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The nucleus is composed of neutral neutrons and positively charged protons. The opposite charge of the electron and proton binds the atom together with electromagnetic forces.

The protons and neutrons are composed of up and down quarks whose fractional charges (2/3 and -1/3) combine to produce the 0 or +1 charge of the proton and neutron. The nucleus is bound together by the nuclear strong force (that overcomes the electromagnetic repulsion of like-charged protons)

http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast123/lectures/lec07.html

String Theory:

String theory is actually a high order theory where other models, such as supergravity and quantum gravity, appear as approximations. The basic premise to string theory is that subatomic entities, such as quarks and forces, are actually tiny loops, strings and membranes that behave as particles at high energies.

One of the problems in particle physics is the bewildering number of elementary particles (muons and pions and mesons etc). String theory answers this problem by proposing that small loops, about 100 billion billion times smaller than the proton, are vibrating below the subatomic level and each mode of vibration represents a distinct resonance which corresponds to a particular particle. Thus, if we could magnify a quantum particle we would see a tiny vibrating string or loop.

The fantastic aspect to string theory, that makes it such an attractive candidate for a TOE, is that it not only explains the nature of quantum particles but it also explains spacetime as well. Strings can break into smaller strings or combine to form larger strings. This complicated set of motions must obey self-consistent rules and the the constraint caused by these rules results in the same relations described by relativity theory.

Another aspect of string theory that differs from other TOE candidates is its high aesthetic beauty. For string theory is a geometric theory, one that, like general relativity, describes objects and interactions through the use of geometry and does not suffer from infinities or what is called normalization problems such as quantum mechanics. It may be impossible to test the predictions of string theory since it would require temperature and energies similar to those at the beginning of the Universe. Thus, we resort to judging the merit of this theory on its elegance and internal consistence rather than experiment data.

http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/ast123/lectures/lec07.html

BUDI BICARA

Tindakan  ini amat diperlukan dalam semua situasi kehidupan , baik dalam kehidupan yang bermasalah dan sebaliknya . Ini disebabkan ia dapat memberi laluan supaya kesejahteraan manusia dapat diteruskan dan kualiti kemanusiaan dapat ditingkatkan .

Mengikut Kamus Dewan di alamat http://prpm.dbp.gov.my/Search.aspx?k=budi+bicara , budi bicara bermakna akal fikiran . Penggunaannya menunjukkan wujudnya amalan nilai-nilai kehidupan yang lebih tinggi dengan memandang sekeliling sesuatu yang bukan rigid , sebaliknya boleh difleksibelkan bergantung kepada keperluan terhadap sesuatu .

Semua kita memerlukan budi bicara  . Namun begitu terdapat kongkongan pengamalannya seperti batasan undang-undang , kuasa eksekutif  individu atau kumpulan , etika turun-temurun dan sebagainya . Dari satu sudut , batasan ini membantu dalam pengurusan komuniti  jika tiada keperluan penggunaan budibicara tersebut . Namun begitu , keengganan penggunaannya dalam keadaan  diperlukan  menjadikan individu terbabit sama seperti robot kerana gagal menggunakan akal fikiran dalam tindakan .

Kegagalan penggunaan budi bicara boleh menjadikan kehidupan dalam komuniti kucar-kacir . Contoh dalam komuniti terkecil seperti  sebuah keluarga , anak-anak boleh memberontak minta ditimbang keperluan mereka , suami boleh berlaku curang apabila keinginannya tidak diambilkira , isteri boleh bertindak samada  pasif atau agresif apabila  cadangan rasional tidak dianalisis  dan lain-lain lagi .

Paling sering kita perhatikan bagi individu yang tidak mahu menggunakan budibicara ialah mereka akan dijauhi kerana berurusan dengannya sama seperti berurusan dengan sebuah mesin yang tidak bernyawa . Segala outputnya sama seperti yang telah diprogramkan oleh pihak yang berkepentingan terhadap mesin  itu . Dalam ertikata lain , jiwanya mati .......